Mesopotamia

In Mesopotamia, both good and evil qualities were attributed to the snake. Elamite cylinder seals depict a deity seated on a throne of coiled snakes, perhaps indicative of the snake’s symbolism for divine authority and power as in Egypt (Porada, “Cylinder Seals,” Pl. XLIV:4; see also Pl. XLI:3, 4). In the Epic of Gilgamesh 11.6, a crafty snake steals Gilgamesh’s plant of rejuvenation and immediately sheds its skin, providing a folkloristic explanation for the natural process of ecdysis/molting. It was perhaps this ability of a snake to slough off old skin and renew its youthful appearance that mystified the ancients and inspired the magical interpretations of a snake’s abilities. Snakes were often associated with male sexuality and fertility. For example, the high god Marduk and the male demon Pazuzu are described as having snake-like sexual organs (1 VAT 8917 obv. line 3; Black and Green, Gods, Demons, and Symbols, 147–48; see Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological, 94–95). Snakes are also associated with demonic gods and goddesses such as the fearsome female demon Lamashtu, who is depicted grasping snakes in both hands (Black and Green, Gods, Demons, and Symbols, 115–16). Additionally, monstrous sea serpents appear in the Mesopotamian creation account, the Enuma Elish (1.130–145), as soldiers in the army of Tiamat, the chaotic goddess of the sea.