The Hebrew word for atone (כָּפַר, kaphar) conveys the idea of covering, both in the sense of covering to hide and also covering for someone (i.e., not charging someone with an offense or penalty). Atonement for sin was made by sacrificing an unblemished animal, although that is not always the case. Exceptions including money (Exod 30:14–16), prayer (Exod 32:30–33), the scapegoat (Lev 16:10), and incense (Num 16:46–47) are said to atone for sin under certain circumstances without requiring death. People are not the only recipients of atonement—inanimate objects like the altar (Exod 29:36–37) and holy place (Lev 16:16) are also said to be atoned.

The Old Testament never reveals what transpires on a metaphysical level when a sacrifice is offered to God. Instead, the Torah focuses on the means of atonement, describing the specific, necessary steps to reach reconciliation. While a variety of sacrifices are prescribed by the Pentateuch and depicted throughout the Old Testament, the primary passages for understanding atonement in the sacrificial system are Lev 4–6 and 16.

Leviticus 4–6 describes the process for making sin and guilt offerings. For the sin offering, an unblemished animal was presented and killed, then its blood was sprinkled and/or smeared on the altar. The fat of the animal was removed and burned atop the altar. When the nation of Israel or a priest was found guilty of sin, the sacrifice must be a bull. Individuals could offer a lamb, goat, or (for the poor) two small birds. Stipulations for guilt offerings are similar, but include restitution paid by the guilty party for their crime (Lev 5:14–19). While the two modes of offering are distinct from one another, the terms sin and guilt are used interchangeably in Lev 5:17–6:7 (see especially Lev 7:7).

The Day of Atonement (Lev 16) was a more complex ceremony involving special priestly garments, five sacrificial animals (one bull, two goats, and two rams), incense, and the purification of the holy place. After the bull had been killed to atone for the sins of the priest, lots were cast over the two goats. One of the goats was killed and its blood used to purify the holy place; the people’s sins would be confessed over the other—the scapegoat—which was then released into the wilderness to carry away that sin. The two rams were then presented as a guilt offering for the priest and the people, and the fat of the bull and the slain goat was burned on the altar to conclude the ceremony.

The elaborate nature and blood sacrifice of these ceremonies attest the gravity with which the Old Testament views sin. The people’s participation in the ceremonies speaks to the dynamic, covenantal relationship between God and Israel.